| Forests in Indonesia | Governance | Indonesian "Adat" Communities | Yes | Adat communities were subjected to severe sanction for their use of forests during this period, and were often blamed for forest degradation that was explicitly caused by other actors (such as extractive industries). Sanctioning included the use of the military against protesting adat communities. |
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| Forests in Indonesia | Governance | Large Extractive Industries in Indonesia | Yes | In theory, the central government could sanction members of this group for violating extraction rules. In practice, this happened rarely (and could have been related to broader political dynamics - i.e. those sanctioned might have fallen out of political favor). |
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| Forests in Indonesia | Governance | Indonesian "Adat" Communities | Yes | Indonesian forest officials sanction this group for violating restrictions on forest use, but it is not clear whether this happens frequently. |
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| Forests in Indonesia | Governance | Large Extractive Industries in Indonesia | Yes | The Indonesian central government during this period began to occasionally enforce laws against extractive industries illegal activities. |
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| Forests in Indonesia | Governance | Civil society organizations in Indonesia | No | this group is not sanctioned because it is primarily engaged in monitoring, not using. |
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| Forests in Indonesia | Governance | Indonesian Local entrepreneurs | Yes | Although infrequent, there are some examples of the central govt. taking action against local entrpreneurs for their illegal activities. |
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| Central California National Marine Sanctuaries | Governance | California Academic Researchers | Yes | If researchers violate laws associated with humpbacks, the Coast Guard, Sanctuary, or NMFS can impose sanctions on them. Though this is rare. (*Uncertain if graduated) |
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| Central California National Marine Sanctuaries | Governance | California Groundfish Fishermen | Yes | The California Department of Fish and Wildlife, the Pacific Fisheries Marine Council, and the Sanctuary Offices can all impose sanctions on the fishermen. Unknown if they are graduated sanctions*. |
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| Great Australian Bight Marine Park (GABMP) (Commonwealth Waters) | Governance | GABMP (Commonwealth Waters) Commercial Fishers | Yes | The Australia Fisheries Management Authority monitors the compliance of concession holders across the Commonwealth fisheries. Non-compliance, through contravention of the Fisheries Management Act 1991 and related legislation, is detected through analysing information. Sanctions are outlined in the Fisheries Management Act and are graduated according to the severity and repetition of offenses |
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| Svalbard Nature Reserves | Governance | Svalbard Tourism | Yes | The Governor (part of the Resource Managers) has the ability to prosecute environmental violations. Although I have not found specific information about the value of fines for specific activities, sanctions are most likely graduated, and determined by the governor based on the level of severity. |
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| Community D (Fiji Fisheries) | Governance | Community D | No | |
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| Community E (Fiji Fisheries) | Governance | Community E | No | |
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| Community G (Fiji Fisheries) | Governance | Community G | No | |
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| Community H (Fiji Fisheries) | Governance | Community H | No | |
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| Great Barrier Reef Marine Park | Governance | GBR commercial fishers | Not Applicable | |
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| Seaflower MPA | Governance | Seaflower artisanal fishers | Not Applicable | |
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| Seaflower MPA | Governance | Seaflower artisanal fishers | Yes | CORALINA is in charge of enforcing the rules and prosecuting violators. |
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| Cenderwasih National Park | Governance | Cenderwasih fishers | Yes | Sanctions have been applied within the MPA (WWF 2015) - but not sure if this was to local fishers, or outsiders? |
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| Cenderwasih National Park | Governance | Cenderwasih fishers | Yes | Sanctions are applied by the management actor. Not sure on the extent to sanctions have been applied to local fishers. |
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| Falkland Islands squid | Governance | Patagonian Squid Trawlers | Yes | Yes, primarily fines or loss of license privileges. Not jail. Mostly confiscation. Likely graduated, but mostly reflect level of violation (amount misreported). |
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| New Zealand squid | Governance | New Zealand Arrow Squid Fishers | Yes | The Fisheries Act 1996 puts a strict liability offence on any person who buys, sells or possesses fish, other aquatic life or seaweed, taken in contravention of the Act. Significant penalties are imposed on persons fishing commercially without a fishing permit. These include fines of up to $250,000, imprisonment up to 5 years and/or forfeiture of gear, vessels, or vehicles used in the commission of the offense. Mostly fines in fees, if don't pay have to give more feeds, also can take property, keep your employer from paying you, and keep you from leaving the country (NZ 2010). *uncertain if graduated |
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| California squid | Governance | California market squid fishermen | Yes | Yes, sanctions imposed by CDFW. Primarily fines, but also jail. Licenses can be suspended or revoked as well.
Yes graduated- both in terms of first, second, but also if second within a certain time period (e.g. second offense within a year). |
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| Pond aquaculture on Lombok, Indonesia | Governance | Lombok aquaculture farmers | No | Cutting mangrove down is supposed to come with strong, but informal, sanctioning. However, no documented cases of an implemented sanction could be remembered. |
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| Pond aquaculture on Lombok, Indonesia | Governance | Lombok aquaculture farmers | | |
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| Caete-Teperacu Extractive Reserve (RESEX) in Braganca, Brazil | Governance | Association of Users in the Caete-Teperacu RESEX (ASSUREMACATA) in Brazil | Missing | |
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| Gili Trawangan Coastal Tourism | Governance | SCUBA diving businesses on Gili Trawangan | No | |
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| Gili Trawangan Coastal Tourism | Governance | Gili Indah Dive Association (GIDA) | No | |
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| Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica fisheries governance | Governance | Isla Caballo AMPR Costa Rica | No | |
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| Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica fisheries governance | Governance | Palito-Montero AMPR Costa Rica | Yes | Technically in place by government agency but rarely actually enforced. |
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| Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica fisheries governance | Governance | Paquera-Tambor AMPR Costa Rica | Yes | |
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| Heard and McDonald Islands Marine Reserve | Governance | Australian Toothfish Fishers | Yes | Fishers could be sanctioned by the AFMA for violating rules. Also certification could be revoked by the Marine Stewardship Council if rules are violated. |
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| Montreal Protocol | Governance | Ozone Depleting Substance Industrial Producers | Yes | Sanctions may be applied to industrial users by nation states. |
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| International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine (ICPR) | Governance | ICPR nations (1976-1986) | | |
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| International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine (ICPR) | Governance | Rhine chemical firms | Yes | Foreign interest groups (i.e. waterworks associations) used national courts to sue industrial firms |
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| Great Barrier Reef Marine Park | Governance | GBR recreational fishers | No | Corals are not targeted for extraction. In theory, if someone does illegally harvest them, they would be sanctioned, but in practice, there are not enough enforcement personnel to monitor recreational catches. Hence infractions are rarely caught. |
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| Great Barrier Reef Marine Park | Governance | GBR recreational fishers | No | Corals are not targeted for extraction. In theory, if someone does illegally harvest them, they would be sanctioned, but in practice, there are not enough enforcement personnel to monitor recreational catches. Hence infractions are rarely caught. |
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| Great Barrier Reef Marine Park | Governance | GBR commercial fishers | Yes | |
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| Great Barrier Reef Marine Park | Governance | GBR commercial fishers | Yes | Government agencies sanction this group. Information about graduated sanctions not available |
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| Central California National Marine Sanctuaries | Governance | California Academic Researchers | Yes | The Sanctuary and CDFW can impose sanctions. Uncertain if graduated, but likely during criminal prosecution. |
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| Montreal Protocol | Governance | Ozone Depleting Substance Industrial Producers | Yes | Nation states may sanction this group for rule violations of national level laws |
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| Galapagos Marine Reserve (GMR) | Governance | Galapagos Artisan Fishermen | No | Detection capacity has increased during this time frame, however sanctions are very rarely applied. Ecuadoran Navy responsible for applying sanctions. |
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| Macquarie Island Marine Park | Governance | Australian Toothfish Fishers | Yes | Fishers could be punished by AFMA for violating rules; and MSC certification could be revoked by the Marine Stewardship council. |
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| Galapagos Marine Reserve (GMR) | Governance | Galapagos Tourism Sector | Yes | Yes there are regulations on tourism - both in terms of specific rules and numbers and times allowed to visit certain sites, e.g. each vessel has different allowed numbers, times and locations. Not sure what the sanctions are if breached, but 3 strikes and permit is removed - so counting this as graduated. |
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| Wakatobi National Park | Governance | Wakatobi Bajau fishers | Yes | There are sanctions associated with destructive fishing and illegal marine resource use, these are applied by the management actor (Clifton 2013). However to what extent these sanctions are applied is not clear (de jure vis a vis de facto) |
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| Wakatobi National Park | Governance | Wakatobi Bajau fishers | Yes | There are sanctions associated with destructive fishing and illegal marine resource use, these are applied by the management actor (Clifton 2013) - but the extent to which they are applied in practice is unclear.
The Management actor can apprehend but not have the power to prosecute/impose fines, only the police can do that (Julian Clifton pers comm). |
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| Wakatobi National Park | Governance | Wakatobi Bajau fishers | Yes | There are sanctions associated with destructive fishing and illegal marine resource use, these are applied by the management actor (Clifton 2013). However to what extent these sanctions are applied is not clear (de jure vis a vis de facto) |
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| Central California National Marine Sanctuaries | Governance | California Sanctuary Recreational Users | Yes | The Sanctuary, Coast Guard, and NMFS monitor recreational users and enforce any law violations. Jail time and fines are likely graduated* |
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| Community A (Fiji fisheries) | Governance | Community A | No | Although the government is technically able to apply sanctions; external sanctions are rare. |
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| Community B (Fiji Fisheries) | Governance | Community B | No | |
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| Community C (Fiji Fisheries) | Governance | Community C | No | |
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| Raja Ampat (National Act No. 32 2004) | Governance | Raja Ampat Artisanal Fishers | Yes | Yes there is enforcement within the MPAs and sanctions have been applied (to e.g. bomb fishers) |
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| Raja Ampat (National Act No. 32 2004) | Governance | Raja Ampat Tourism | Not Applicable | |
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| Raja Ampat (National Act No. 32 2004) | Governance | Raja Ampat Artisanal Fishers | Yes | Yes there is enforcement within the MPAs and sanctions have been applied (to e.g. bomb fishers, not for taking turtles as far as I'm aware) |
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| Raja Ampat (National Act No. 32 2004) | Governance | Raja Ampat Artisanal Fishers | Yes | Yes there is enforcement within the MPAs and sanctions have been applied (to e.g. bomb fishers) |
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| Svalbard Nature Reserves | Governance | Svalbard Tourism | Yes | The Governor (a Resource Manager) has the ability to prosecute environmental violations. Although I have not found specific information about the value of fines for specific activities, sanctions are most likely graduated, and determined by the governor based on the level of severity. Note that sanctions (fines) for environmental infractions would be more commonly applied to individual tourists, rather than the tourist companies. |
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| Great Barrier Reef Marine Park | Governance | GBR recreational fishers | Yes | Fines are given if infringement is caught. Not sure about graduated levels. |
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| Community F (Fiji Fisheries) | Governance | Community F | No | |
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| Great Australian Bight Marine Park (GABMP) (Commonwealth Waters) | Governance | GABMP (Commonwealth Waters) Commercial Fishers | Yes | There are sanctions outlined in the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act (Subdivision C - 229) that are applied by the Minister for the Environment for violations of rules regarding the southern right whale and these sanctions are graduated. The Director of National Parks is responsible for regulating uses of the Park such as prosecuting for offenses under relevant State and Commonwealth laws through the appropriate legal channels. |
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| Svalbard Nature Reserves | Governance | Svalbard Shrimp Fishers | Yes | The regulations for fishing are clearly defined, and any infraction of the rules could result in penalty. I have not found information on the exact penalties, but it is highly likely that sanctions are graduated. |
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| Great Australian Bight Marine Park (GABMP) (Commonwealth Waters) | Governance | GABMP (Commonwealth Waters) Commercial Fishers | Yes | The Australia Fisheries Management Authority monitors the compliance of concession holders across the Commonwealth fisheries. Non-compliance, through contravention of the Fisheries Management Act 1991 and related legislation, is detected through analysing information. Sanctions are outlined in the Fisheries Management Act and are graduated according to the severity and repetition of offenses. Even though the management actor group coded for this case, the Director of National Parks, does not apply the sanctions, the Director is still responsible for management of the GABMP (CW). This includes monitoring and assessing compliance to Prescriptions outlined in the Management Plan that regulate commercial fishing in the Park and prosecuting for offenses under relevant State and Commonwealth laws. |
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| Great Barrier Reef Marine Park | Governance | GBR commercial fishers | Yes | There are financial penalties for non-compliance and the severity of the violation. |
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| Macquarie Island Marine Park | Governance | Australian Toothfish Fishers | Yes | AFMA may sanction fishers for violation of rules and MSC certification may be revoked. |
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| Heard and McDonald Islands Marine Reserve | Governance | Australian Toothfish Fishers | Yes | AFMA could sanction fishers for rule violations; MSC certification may be revoked. |
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