| Forests in Indonesia | Governance | Forests in Indonesia | | Isn’t the governance system the underlying cause of environmental and social problems? |
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| Forests in Indonesia | Governance | Forests in Indonesia | | |
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| Galapagos Marine Reserve | Biophysical | Galapagos Sea Cucumber | | |
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| Atlantic Bluefin Tuna (ICCAT) | Governance | ICCAT Governance System | Proximate (1) | |
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| Atlantic Bluefin Tuna (ICCAT) | Governance | Western Atlantic Bluefin Tuna | Proximate (1) | Regulation focuses on extraction rate of Atlantic Bluefin Tuna, the proximate cause. Comparatively less attention is given to the size of fishing fleets, investments in fleets etc. |
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| Atlantic Bluefin Tuna (ICCAT) | Governance | Eastern Atlantic Bluefin Tuna | Proximate (1) | |
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| Atlantic Bluefin Tuna (ICCAT) | Governance | ICCAT Governance System | Proximate (1) | |
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| Atlantic Bluefin Tuna (ICCAT) | Governance | ICCAT Governance System | Proximate (1) | |
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| Atlantic Bluefin Tuna (ICCAT) | Governance | Eastern Atlantic Bluefin Tuna | Proximate (1) | |
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| Montreal Protocol | Biophysical | Ozone | Proximate (1) | The Montreal Protocol directly targets ODS emissions which is the proximate cause of ozone depletions. |
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| Montreal Protocol | Biophysical | Ozone Depleting Substances | Not Applicable | |
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| Montreal Protocol | Governance | Ozone Depleting Substances | Proximate (1) | ODS emissions are a direct cause of ozone depletion. |
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| Great Barrier Reef Marine Park | Governance | GBR coral cover | Proximate (1) | Mainly addresses extractive pressures, and manages tourism; |
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| Great Barrier Reef Marine Park | Governance | GBR coral cover | Proximate (1) | Mainly addresses extractive pressures, and manages tourism; |
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| Montreal Protocol | Biophysical | Ozone | Not Applicable | |
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| Montreal Protocol | Biophysical | Ozone Depleting Substances | Not Applicable | |
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| Great Barrier Reef Marine Park | Governance | GBR target fish | Proximate (1) | |
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| Great Barrier Reef Marine Park | Governance | GBR target fish | Between proximate and ultimate (2) | Managing fisheries, and resilience to climate change and extreme events. Not addressing population growth, fish consumption and demand, carbon emission and mining growth |
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| Montreal Protocol | Governance | Ozone Depleting Substances | Proximate (1) | Governance system, where implemented in national regulations does address ODS emissions, but they are insufficient to have an appreciable impact. |
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| Galapagos Marine Reserve (GMR) | Governance | Galapagos Sea Cucumber | Between proximate and ultimate (2) | GMRMP & GSL addresses: immigration & direct take
proximate causes: overexploitation
ultimate causes: immigration pressure |
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| Macquarie Island Marine Park | Governance | Patagonian Toothfish | Proximate (1) | |
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| Macquarie Island Marine Park | Governance | Light Mantled Albatross | Proximate (1) | Regulations on Macquarie Island seek to protect nesting habitat, avoid disturbing birds. Fisheries regulations seek to conserve light mantled albatross by requiring technologies that limit the likelihood of bycatch, and close fisheries if 2 light mantled albatross are taken in a given year. |
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| Macquarie Island Marine Park | Governance | Macquarie Island Royal Penguin | Proximate (1) | Management plans address threats from tourists and researchers and invasive species. |
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| Wakatobi National Park | Governance | Wakatobi National Park 2008-current | Proximate (1) | Focus on reducing destructive fishing practices such as blast fishing |
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| Wakatobi National Park | Governance | Wakatobi coral cover | Proximate (1) | Direct impacts of gears on corals - focus on reduction in destructive practices, including blast fishing (Clifton 2013) |
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| Wakatobi National Park | Governance | Wakatobi fish spawning | Proximate (1) | Focused on destructive fishing |
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| Wakatobi National Park | Governance | Wakatobi National Park 2008-current | Proximate (1) | focussed on reducing destructive fishing practices |
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| Wakatobi National Park | Governance | Wakatobi National Park 2008-current | Proximate (1) | Addressing over-exploitation/destructive fishing |
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| Wakatobi National Park | Governance | Wakatobi Green Turtle | Proximate (1) | Ban harvesting and turtle nesting beaches protected |
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| Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NWHI) Marine National Monument | Governance | NWHI Monument Act 2006 | Proximate (1) | The lobster fishery was closed in 2000 due to concerns over low populations |
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| Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NWHI) Marine National Monument | Governance | NWHI Lobster Fishery | Proximate (1) | Lobster fishery is closed. |
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| Galapagos Marine Reserve (GMR) | Governance | Galapagos Green Turtle | Proximate (1) | Management plan for terrestrial portion of park protects most nesting beaches, with one site designated as a tourist site, and programs are in place to reduce the impact of feral pigs on turtle nests.
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| International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine (ICPR) | Biophysical | Rhine Non-point source pollutants | | |
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| Galapagos Marine Reserve (GMR) | Governance | Galapagos Sharks | Between proximate and ultimate (2) | Both: Ban on industrial fishing and long-lining, and also an attempt to control immigration. The Galapagos Special Law laid out immigration protocols which sought to limit the size of the resident population, but this has only started to have an impact - from 1999 to 2005, the population in Galapagos grew by 60%. |
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| Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NWHI) Marine National Monument | Governance | NWHI Monument Act 2006 | Proximate (1) | Focussed on no-take |
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| Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NWHI) Marine National Monument | Governance | NWHI Trophic Density | Proximate (1) | focussing on no-take, direct threats |
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| Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NWHI) Marine National Monument | Governance | NWHI Green Turtle | Proximate (1) | Focussing on reducing direct threats |
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| Central California National Marine Sanctuaries | Governance | Joint Sanctuary Management Governance System | Between proximate and ultimate (2) | While the governance deals with strandings, more ultimate causes such as shipping lanes and ecosystem health are being addressed. |
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| Central California National Marine Sanctuaries | Governance | Joint Sanctuary Management Governance System | Between proximate and ultimate (2) | By regulating shipping activities, groundings are less likely. By providing educational resources, particularly in front of these rocky shores areas, visitor influence on this ecosystem is likely less severe. Poaching is enforced and noted to decrease illegal taking. Water quality programs are active and reduce contaminating these habitats. |
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| Macquarie Island Marine Park | Governance | Macquarie Island Nature Reserve Management Plan | Proximate (1) | The Macquarie Island Nature Reserve Management Plan seeks to conserve light mantled albatross by limiting human impacts on their breeding sites and managing invasive species that directly or indirectly affect them. |
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| Community A (Fiji fisheries) | Governance | Community A Governance System | Proximate (1) | |
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| Community B (Fiji Fisheries) | Governance | Community B Governance System | Proximate (1) | |
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| Community C (Fiji Fisheries) | Governance | Community C Governance System | Proximate (1) | |
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| Raja Ampat (National Act No. 32 2004) | Governance | Raja Ampat Governance System | Proximate (1) | Governance system focuses on reducing destructive practices and over-fishing (Boli, 2014). |
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| Raja Ampat (National Act No. 32 2004) | Governance | Raja Ampat Governance System | Proximate (1) | Focussed on reducing poaching of nesting turtles and nests |
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| Raja Ampat (National Act No. 32 2004) | Governance | Raja Ampat Governance System | Proximate (1) | Mainly focussed on reducing destructive fishing |
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| Central California National Marine Sanctuaries | Governance | Pacific Coast Groundfish Fishery Management Plan | Between proximate and ultimate (2) | The management process attempts to incorporate social and economic needs of the fishery and addresses fluctuating conditions. The discussion and public hearing sessions are designed to address both proximate and underlying concerns. Both short term and long term goals are specified in the federal groundfish management plan. Habitat is managed as a long term concern. Quotas are allocated to address proximate overfishing, but the assessments include long term projections. |
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| Svalbard Nature Reserves | Governance | Svalbard Environmental Protection Act | Proximate (1) | The Governance System controls the number of visitors permitted within the Nature Reserves, and of the activities taking place. |
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| Galapagos Marine Reserve (GMR) | Governance | Galapagos Governance System 1998-current | Between proximate and ultimate (2) | Adresses both: focus on over-exploitation of resources and banning industrial fishing. The Galapagos Special Law also laid out immigration protocols which sought to limit the size of the resident population, but this has only started to have an impact - from 1999 to 2005, the population in Galapagos grew by 60%. |
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| Galapagos Marine Reserve (GMR) | Governance | Galapagos Governance System 1998-current | Between proximate and ultimate (2) | Both: Fishery restrictions and an attempt to control immigration.
The Galapagos Special Law laid out immigration protocols which sought to limit the size of the resident population, but this has only started to have an impact - from 1999 to 2005, the population in Galapagos grew by 60%. |
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| Galapagos Marine Reserve (GMR) | Governance | Galapagos Governance System 1998-current | Between proximate and ultimate (2) | Adresses both: focus on over-exploitation of resources and banning industrial fishing. The Galapagos Special Law also laid out immigration protocols which sought to limit the size of the resident population, but this has only started to have an impact - from 1999 to 2005, the population in Galapagos grew by 60%. |
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| Community F (Fiji Fisheries) | Governance | Community F Governance System | Proximate (1) | |
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| Great Australian Bight Marine Park (GABMP) (Commonwealth Waters) | Governance | GABMP (Commonwealth Waters) Plan of Management 2000 - 2005 and Management Plan 2005 - 2012 | Proximate (1) | Focuses on proximate through minimizing the risk of human interference with the annual aggregation and calving of southern right whales by prohibiting vessel traffic in the Marine Mammal Protection Zone of the GABMP (CW) from May 1 to October 31. |
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| Svalbard Nature Reserves | Governance | Svalbard Environmental Protection Act | Proximate (1) | Controlling number of fishers and how they fish, but not addressing demand considerations. |
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| Seaflower MPA | Governance | Seaflower MPA Act 2005 | Proximate (1) | It regulates access of certain groups to specific areas (industrial fishers, artisanal fishers, divers) but it does not address any issues related to overpopulation, globalization, fisheries subsidies, etc. |
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| Great Barrier Reef Marine Park | Governance | GBR Marine Park Act 2004-current | Proximate (1) | Management addresses ways to reduce turtle bycatch (e.g. TEDs), but is not addressing ultimate drivers such as demand for fish and climate change. |
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| Heard and McDonald Islands Marine Reserve | Governance | Heard Island and McDonald Islands Fishery Management Plan | Proximate (1) | The fishery management plan governs fishing vessels within AU EEZ's around HIMI, however it does not deal with global albatross bycatch issues or other underlying threats. |
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| Heard and McDonald Islands Marine Reserve | Governance | Heard and McDonald Islands Marine Reserve Management Plan | Proximate (1) | The management plan addresses human use and has tight restrictions on where people can go, thus protects disturbance of albatross and nests. However, it does not (and cannot) protect agains other issues, like the threat of climate change. Further, while fishing is banned in the marine reserve, albatross are still potentially vulnerable outside of the marine reserve and are highly vulnerable to being caught by IUU fishers in the larger area. |
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| Heard and McDonald Islands Marine Reserve | Governance | Heard and McDonald Islands Marine Reserve Management Plan | Proximate (1) | The management plan addresses human use in the area, including prevention of invasive species, protection of the penguins themselves, etc. However, it does not (and cannot) deal with other issues, like the threat of climate change. |
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| Heard and McDonald Islands Marine Reserve | Governance | Heard Island and McDonald Islands Fishery Management Plan | Proximate (1) | The management plan uses quotas and a variety of management rules to limit harvest. However, it does not address issues related to black markets (IUU), subsidies or potentially unsustainable demand for toothfish on an international level. |
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| Heard and McDonald Islands Marine Reserve | Governance | Heard and McDonald Islands Marine Reserve Management Plan | Proximate (1) | Prohibits fishing in the MPA (except in conservation zones), but does not address larger fishery issues (e.g., IUU, fishing demand, etc.). |
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| Great Australian Bight Marine Park (GABMP) (Commonwealth Waters) | Governance | GABMP (Commonwealth Waters) Plan of Management 2000 - 2005 and Management Plan 2005 - 2012 | Proximate (1) | Focuses on proximate through minimizing the risk of human interference with the sea lion breeding areas |
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| Community D (Fiji Fisheries) | Governance | Community D Governance System | Proximate (1) | |
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| Community E (Fiji Fisheries) | Governance | Community E Governance System | Proximate (1) | |
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| Community G (Fiji Fisheries) | Governance | Community G Governance System | Proximate (1) | |
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| Community H (Fiji Fisheries) | Governance | Community H Governance System | Proximate (1) | |
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| Seaflower MPA | Governance | Seaflower MPA Act 2005 | Proximate (1) | It regulates access of certain groups to specific areas (industrial fishers, artisanal fishers, divers) but it does not address any issues related to overpopulation, globalization, fisheries subsidies, etc. |
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| Cenderwasih National Park | Governance | Cenderwasih governance system | Proximate (1) | |
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| Cenderwasih National Park | Governance | Cenderwasih governance system | Proximate (1) | |
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| Falkland Islands squid | Governance | The Falkland Islands Government (FIG) Fisheries Department’s Falklands Interim Conservation and Management Zone (FICZ) | Between proximate and ultimate (2) | Addressing overfishing and seabird interaction is addressing proximate
Addressing local rights (ITQ) is more ultimate |
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| California squid | Governance | California Department of Fish and Wildlife Market Squid Fishery Management Plan | Proximate (1) | Primarily proximate. The cap addresses overfishing, also focus on gear type and larger ecosystem factors such as incidental catch. Primarily effort based through licenses, catch based through total catch limit. Weekend closures and protected areas also proximate. |
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| Pond aquaculture on Lombok, Indonesia | Governance | Indonesian Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture | | |
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| Pond aquaculture on Lombok, Indonesia | Governance | Indonesian Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture | | |
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| Caete-Teperacu Extractive Reserve (RESEX) in Braganca, Brazil | Governance | Caeté-Taperaçú Extractive Reserve (RESEX) in Brazil | Between proximate and ultimate (2) | |
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| Gili Trawangan Coastal Tourism | Governance | Self.organized rules and norms for SCUBA diving | Between proximate and ultimate (2) | |
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| Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica fisheries governance | Governance | Marine Areas for Responsible Fishing (AMPRs) Costa Rica | Proximate (1) | |
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| New Zealand squid | Governance | New Zealand Quota Management System | Between proximate and ultimate (2) | Proximate: Focusing on catch limit and animal interaction, primarily sea lion escape rate.
Ultimate: Ownership and Stewardship through Quota Management System |
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| International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine (ICPR) | Governance | Rhine Point source pollutants | Proximate (1) | Focused on ambient concentration levels |
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| Great Barrier Reef Marine Park | Governance | GBR Marine Park Act 2004-current | Proximate (1) | Mostly addressing proximate causes like over-exploitation, dumping of dredge spoil from coastal development and building resilience to climate change. Not putting as much emphasis on ultimate drivers like population growth or carbon emissions or expanding coal mining. |
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| Macquarie Island Marine Park | Governance | Macquarie Island Nature Reserve Management Plan | Proximate (1) | The Nature Reserve Management Plan prohibits fishing within the marine portion of the Nature Reserve. |
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| Great Barrier Reef Marine Park | Governance | GBR Marine Park Act 2004-current | Proximate (1) | Mostly addressing proximate causes like over-exploitation, dumping of dredge spoil from coastal development and building resilience to climate change. Not putting as much emphasis on ultimate drivers like population growth or carbon emissions or expanding coal mining. |
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| Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NWHI) Marine National Monument | Governance | NWHI Monument Act 2006 | Proximate (1) | Focussed on no take |
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| Macquarie Island Marine Park | Governance | Macquarie Island Toothfish Fishery Management Plan | Proximate (1) | |
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| Macquarie Island Marine Park | Governance | Macquarie Island Nature Reserve Management Plan | Proximate (1) | Harvesting of royal penguins is banned; major threats include predation of eggs by Skua which occur at high levels due to rabbit population. With the recent elimination of rabbits, this effect might be expected to decline. |
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| Macquarie Island Marine Park | Governance | Macquarie Island Toothfish Fishery Management Plan | Proximate (1) | The management plan uses quotas to control levels of exploitation, does not address issues related to fishing subsidies or likely unsustainable demand for Patagonian Toothfish |
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| Great Australian Bight Marine Park (GABMP) (Commonwealth Waters) | Governance | GABMP (Commonwealth Waters) Plan of Management 2000 - 2005 and Management Plan 2005 - 2012 | Proximate (1) | Primarily offers protection via eliminating direct threats: conserving breeding and calving habitat of species of conservation concern, and a benthic protection zone. |
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| Macquarie Island Marine Park | Governance | Macquarie Island Marine Park Management Plan | Proximate (1) | Mainly addresses concerns related to bycatch in fisheries; but also provides some protection of foraging grounds and species within foraging grounds. |
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| Macquarie Island Marine Park | Governance | Macquarie Island Marine Park Management Plan | Proximate (1) | Regulates fishing activities within the Macquarie Island Marine Park, does not address drivers of demand, fishing subsidies etc |
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| Macquarie Island Marine Park | Governance | Macquarie Island Marine Park Management Plan | Proximate (1) | Management plans address proximate causes by banning harvesting and protecting habitat. Does not address issues related to climate change which is a potential threat. |
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| Svalbard Nature Reserves | Governance | Svalbard Environmental Protection Act | Proximate (1) | The Governance System controls the number of visitors permitted within the Nature Reserves, and of the activities taking place. |
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